The nature of Darwin's Contributions to the study of evolution Essay

The nature of Darwin's Contributions to the study of evolution - Essay Example Most f these masses said nothing, however, some vocally supported such persons as Charles Hodge, a Princeton theologian who preached that Darwinism was atheism. John William Dawson and Arnold Guyot, two f the last reputable nineteenth-century creationists attempted to oblige science by interpreting the days f Genesis "as ages and by correlating them with successive epochs in the natural history f the world" (Ruse, 229). Dawson and Guyot cited several supernatural interventions, particularly in their theories f the first humans; however, they attempted to keep such paranormal citations to a minimum, thus focusing on a maximizing f operations f natural law. Between 1910 and 1915, The Fundamentals was published to rejuvenate and reform Christianity throughout the world. These booklets were mass-produced, and, at the time, posed a bigger threat to orthodox faith than did evolution. According to Numbers, "Although one contributor [to The Fundamentals] identified evolution as the principal cause f disbelief in the Scriptures and another traced the roots f higher criticism to Darwin, the collection as a whole lacked the strident anti-evolution that would characterize the fundamentalist movement f the 1920s" (249). William Jennings Bryan soon became the ideal spokesman for an anti-evolution crusade. He was politically involved and, although lost the bid for presidency three times, had a national reputation, vast prestige, and a strong following. Bryan often preached f the silliness f humans having a biological connection to apes. After the outbreak f World War I, Bryan began to trace the source f trouble to the influence f Darwinism. From the information printed in two published books, one by Vernon Kellogg and one by Benjamin Kidd, Bryan blamed the deterioration f Christianity and democracy on the support f theories f evolution. Each f the two books cited conversations among German officers revealing that Darwin's biology had played a major role in convincing the Germans to declare war. Bryan furthered his crusade by noting that beliefs in evolution were the main cause f students to lose faith in the Bible. In class we learned that "creation science" has, indeed, not been proven as a science, thus should not be taught in schools. However, it is that same claim that was used by many creationists when referring to theories f evolution-- that it is not scientific. The crusade against evolution was given a significant boost in 1921 when British biologist William Bateson declared that scientists had not discovered "the actual mode and process f evolution" (Bateson, 56). Even though Bateson urged creationists not to misinterpret his statement as a rejection f evolution, they ignored him and accepted the statement as a minor triumph. Nonetheless, when it came down to a scientific debate, the creationists had only a handful f legitimate scientists-- including one or two physicians and a few teachers. In 1925 came the famous Scopes trial, where a high school teacher, John Thomas

Life-Based Leadership Principles from Jack Welch Essay Example for Free

Life-Based Leadership Principles from Jack Welch Essay During the hundreds of millions of years of natural evolution on this planet, survival has always been a continuous challenge for living creatures. It has recently to come into light that in the past four million years, there have been scores of human species on the earth, besides us homo sapiens. However, all of these various human-like beings including the Neanderthal man perished in the course of evolution; we humans have outlived all of them. We have emerged as the true survivors. We are the last â€Å"man† standing. However, in the whole history of the world, survival could have never been as tough as it is in today’s world of big business. It is an ever-changing, dizzingly fast-paced, intensely competitive and danger-saturated environment out there. There are many survivors and many winners in this arena, of course. Of all such exceptional people in the recent decades, there is one man who stands out as a celebrated icon of leadership and business success. And it is none other than Jack Welch of GE, arguably the finest CEO in the latter half of the twentieth century. Speaking from a broad perspective, he is not just an exemplary business leader, but a hero, a survivor, a symbol of the triumph of man. Jack Welch is a man who believed that each individual should control his or her own destiny. Welch sums up his conviction thus: â€Å"Today, I see winning as people defining their objectives and fulfilling them, not being a victim. You define where you want to go, and then you go for it ([emailprotected]) And from the depth of this belief perhaps sprang the secret of his greatness. Starting from the early Eighties, Jack Welch, CEO of the General Electric Corporation, has led his company through one of the most revolutionary and far-reaching changes ever witnessed in modern business history. Having taken GE with a market capitalization of about $12 billion, Jack Welch turned it into one of the largest and most admired companies in the world, with a market value of about $500 billion, when he stepped down as its CEO 20 years later, in 2000. Although Jack Welch was the legendary leader of a global manufacturing giant noted for its technological might and superiority, he has utilized a very human process to drive change through GEs vast organization. He honoured the individual above all, and the humanity of the individual. To him, the individual was the pivotal force in bringing about organizational change. And for the major part of his immensely successful career at the helm of GE he relentlessly embraced change. It was change that made GE businesses leaders in their markets, added profitable, productive businesses to GEs family, and tapped the brains of knowledgeable employees. Welch worked for change, and change worked for him. Jack Welch of course knew how difficult change could be. Nevertheless he viewed change as his only real chance to transform GE into the kind of top-notch competitive enterprise that he wanted it to be. Only through continuously undergoing massive changes, GE could win, and Jack Welch firmly believed in winning. He wanted to be a winner. And winners were not afraid to make changes. However, pursuit of change, empowerment of individuals, and such principles are only part of a broder human-centric principles of successful leadership in which Jack Welch passionately believed in. Welch’s original approach to management and leadership, which proved so successful in transforming GE could be summed up unders six heads: Control your destiny, or someone else will. Welchs first maxim became the title of a semi-autobiographic bestseller that described the revolution at GE. The basic approach that Welch followed to carry out a dramatic revolution at GE was to trust the individual and let him or her believe in their own desitiny. Welsh believed in delegating authority freely, fairly and responsibly, within the company. In a general context, however, while no mere human being can have absolute control over his or her destiny, the point is to take total personal responsibility for one’s own life and actions, and assume intelligent control of the course of things. 2. Face reality as it is, not as it was or as you wish it were. Facing reality is tough. Facing reality means looking directly into suffering, failure, inadequacy of ourselves, others, and the world, something which we human beings are programmed to avoid. When corporations do not face simple realities, however, such as their products costing more to produce and being worthless than those of their competitors, market share and profits drop, the company and its employees suffer. Welch saw all these things happening at GE. Only when we are ready to honestly examine ourselves and acknowledge our shortcomings, will we be able to do anything about them. Acceptance can lead to transformation. 3. Be candid with everyone. Traditional wisdom says that honesty is the best policy. This home-spun truth has great relevance in today’s hyper-modern corporate settings. Welch strove to create an atmosphere at GE where people could effortlessly speak up to somebody in authority, who could then do something about their problems. It is an atmosphere, it is in the air of GE. Welch himself regularly spoke with front-line employees on the plant floor. Welch was equally open to hear both the good and bad things about GE. Honesty, sincerity and candor: they have their own rewards. In a bureaucracy, people are afraid to speak out. This type of environment slows you down, and it doesnt improve the workplace, says Jack Welch. He therefore calls for promoting a corporate culture that appreciates and rewards honest feedback. You reinforce the behaviors that you reward. If you reward candor, youll get it. 4. Dont manage, lead. Welch abhorred a strictly hierarchical type of management built on the concept of control. To Welch, managers should become leaders who show the way to other people by inpsiring and motivating them. Instead of controlling and exploiting workers, leaders should liberate and empower them. Do not push and pull your employees at every opportunity, gently guide them towards greater possibility. Welch’s leadership philosophy continues to be very simple: empower others, ask questions, tap into the potential of all of your associates, choose integrity and candor over charts, graphs, and politics, and spend more time in action instead of planning and posturing budgets. 5. Change before you have to. That is to say, proactivity. One has to be able to look ahead and predict changes that future is going to necessitate. In the context of a business organization, it is far better to change early those things in a company that need to be changed to stay competitive, when there is still plenty of time, rather than forcibly having to change them later when an adverse reality in form of failure and loss thrusts itself in the face of the organization. Welch was fond of yelling across the table at meetings, Change, before its too late! 6. If you dont have a competitive advantage, dont compete. Welch often quoted his business maxim that every division at GE had to be number one or number two or get out of that specific business. In the 1980s, Welch was convinced that inflation would soon become rampant thereby slowing down economic growth. The elimination of the old-line businesses was not going to be an easy job in terms of loss of jobs and lowering of morale that it implied. But Welch had to do what he had to do. The Number 1 or number 2 philosophy – as ruthless as it sounds – had been critical for GE to grow and survive in the modern world.

Analysing The Compatibility Of Islam And Democracy Politics Essay

Analysing The Compatibility Of Islam And Democracy Politics Essay This chapter presents the arguments for and against the compatibility of Islam and democracy, not to Islamic states specifically per se but more to Muslim-majority states as a whole. By doing so, it encompasses the wide range of arguments that scholars have made on the issue and shows clearly what makes it possible for Islam and democracy to be compatible and what does not. Taking these arguments into consideration, this chapter then puts it into context for Islamic states and analyzes if it is possible for them to be democratic without essentially loosing what makes it an Islamic state. The relationship between Islam and democracy, its compatibility and the issue of the democratic deficit in the Muslim world is one that has been put in the spotlight especially after the catastrophe and repercussions of September 11 (Hasan 2007: 10) as well as the sustained potency of Islamic revivalism and the rise in involvement of Islamic movements in electoral politics (Esposito Piscatori 1991: 428). Although not all hope is lost for the Muslim world as there are Muslim-majority states such as Indonesia and Turkey that are recognized as democracies, there is still the problem of the non-existence of democratic Islamic states and that the majority of the Muslim world remains undemocratic. The relationship that Islam and democracy have in the contemporary world and modern-day politics is one that is rather complicated (Esposito Voll 2001). There are many perspectives regarding the coexistence of Islam and democracy. On the one hand, many prominent Islamic intellectuals and groups argue that Islam and democracy are compatible (Esposito Voll 2001). On the other hand, there are others who see the democratization of Islam as a threat, that it may promote an even more virulent anti-Westernism view or others who see the two as inherently antithetical due to the different beliefs that the two promote (Espositio Piscatori 1991: 428). Esposito and Voll present the idea that the Muslim world is not ideological monolithic and therefore presents a broad spectrum of perspectives ranging from the extremes of those who deny a connection between Islam and democracy to those who argue that Islam requires a democratic system (2001). In addition to this, they argue that there are pers pectives that lie in between the two extremes that consist of Muslims in Muslim-majority states who believe that Islam is a support for democracy despite the fact that their political system and governance is not overtly recognized as democratic (Esposito Voll 2001). Having laid out the range of different opinions and stances on the compatibility of Islam and democracy, it is important to note that this chapter will not deal with every single argument present in the ongoing debate of the relationship between Islam and democracy but rather focus on the main substantial points. Khan, in his book Islamic Democratic Discourse, identifies two main schools of thought of Islamic political theory. First there are the political Islamists who advocate the establishment of an Islamic state, an authoritarian and ideological entity whose central concepts are al-Hakimiyyah (the sovereignty of God) and Sharia (the law of God) (Khan 2006: 160). The second school of thought is that of liberal Muslims who advocate an Islamic democracy whose central themes are Shura (consultation) and Sahifat al Madinah (Constitutionalism a la the Compact of Medina) (Khan 2006: 160). It is significant to note that political Islamists do conceive the concept of Shura as a vital comp onent of their Islamic state, but for them consultative governance is not necessary for legitimacy, since legitimacy comes from the enforcement of the Sharia, regardless of the will of the people (Khan 2006: 160). For liberal Muslim scholars, on the other hand, Shura is a paramount and Sharia too must be arrived at through consultative processes and not taken as given (Khan 2006: 160). Therefore, it can be seen that political Islamists, according to Khan, do not see the need for democracy as the legitimacy democracy is meant to give to a states governance and politics is done through the implementation of the Sharia laws. El Fadl argues that for democracy to work inside the framework of Islam and its ideals, it must understand the centrality of Gods sovereignty in Islam and cannot eliminate the element of the Sharia laws as a whole but rather show how it respects and compliments it. However, El Fadls argument is not feasible as it is not possible to enforce Sharia without taking into consideration the will of the people because that already is considered undemocratic. Khan argues that the only way El Fadls Islamic state can be democratic is if the authority of those who interpret the Sharia are dismantled and interpreted by the people themselves (2006: 161). This in turn may jeopardize the quality of Islamic democracy within the state but according to Khan, it is a risk that should be taken for the sake of implementing democracy (2006: 161). Moving on to the second school of thought, liberal Muslims, who believe in an Islamic democracy centred on the ideals of Shura and the Constitution of Medina. Esposito and Picastori argue that Muslim interpretations of democracy build on the well-established concept of Shura (consultation), but place varying emphases on the extent to which the people are able to exercise this duty (1991: 434). They identify a perspective that claims that it is not only the notion of consultation that makes Islam intrinsically democratic, but it is also due to the concepts of ijthihad (independent reasoning) and ijma (consensus) (Esposito Picastori 1991: 434). The Constitution of Medina establishes the importance of consent and cooperation for governance and according to this compact Muslims and non-Muslims are equal citizens of the Islamic state, with identical rights and duties (Khan 2001). Khan argues that according to this constitution, which was the interpretation of the Quran by Prophet Muhamma d, the principles of equality, consensual governance and pluralism are integrated into the Islamic state (2001). He then goes on to point out the difference between Muhammads democratic and tolerant Islamic state to contemporary Muslims such as the Taliban, who interpret the Quran in a completely different and radical way (Khan 2001). Choudry backs up the liberal Muslim perspective by asserting that the fundamentals of democracy are present in Islam: Islam recognizes popular sovereignty, government is based on rule of law, political leaders are elected and accountable to the people and equality of citizens is ensure in the Quran itself (Choudry in Ehteshami 2004: 96). But if this were the case in all Muslim-majority countries, why are there so few democracies in the Muslim world? The answer is simple. Using Khans argument regarding the interpretation of the Quran, it can be argued that the compatibility of Islam and democracy depends on the interpretation of Islamic spiritual scriptures of the Quran by Muslims themselves. Khan argues along identical lines stating that all arguments that advocate Islamic democracies or the compatibility of Islam and democracy take the Quran as a revealed document, whose text is absolute but meanings are open to interpretations (2006: 158). This is a very important piece of informat ion as it highlights the fact that when the Quran is interpreted differently by different Muslims it would result in different understandings of what the Quran encompasses. This would explain why not all Muslim-majority states, Islamic states in particular, are similar in the extent to which Sharia law is implemented in aspects of governance, economics and everyday life. Additionally, Khan uses the theologian perspective to back up liberal Muslim scholars as theologians go to Islamic roots and identify and exemplify those elements that correspond to liberal democratic principles (2006: 158) thus specifically looking for democratic ideals present in Islam. In his book, The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism, theologian Sachedina relies solely on Quranic sources and eschewing other socially constructed discourses, how Islam strongly advocates pluralism (Khan 2006: 158). However, just because Islam promotes pluralism, does not instantly make it democratic. Liberal Muslims and theologians make the mistake of being complacent with the fact that just one or two aspects of democracy are found in Islam, namely Shura and aspects of pluralism, hence automatically making Islam and democracy compatible. If this were the case, democracy would be more prevalent in the Muslim world. Maududi uses the theologian perspective when studying Islam as he also argues that whatever aspect of the Islamic ideology one may like to study, he must, first of all, go to the roots and look at the fundamental principles (1977: 119-120) emphasizing the importance of having to study Islam from the inside out and not just take it at face value. However, Maududi takes a step further than theologians and coins the idea of a theo-democracy, the mixture of theocracy and democracy in Islamic states (1977: 133). According to theo-democracy, God is equally sovereign as the people represented by an elected assembly that is controlled by religious leaders (Maududi in Lane Redissi 2004: 171). Nevertheless, this concept of theo-democracy, as argued by Lane and Redissi, does not fulfil the essential requirement of democracy as the legitimacy of the Mullahs is not derived from the people but from their insight into the Quran (2004: 171). Maududi himself points out that a democratic Islamic stat e would be a fallacy as the sovereignty of God and sovereignty of the people are mutually exclusive and that an Islamic democracy would be the antithesis of secular Western democracy (Maududi in Bukay 2007). The issue of sovereignty of God and the people is what distinguishes Islam and democracy. The two are completely different sets of ideals that cannot be combined together as only one can take precedence over the other, and when this is done, a country either is a democracy or an Islamic state. Going back to the concept of Shura, many scholars use this concept to show that Islam has similar values to those of democracy. Shura can be defined as the obligation for Muslims in managing their political affairs to engage in mutual consultation (Esposito Voll 2001). Lane and Redissi argue that the effort to find the missing link between Islam and modern democracy is focused upon the possibility of finding a link between the concept of consultation Shura and the key institutions of modern democracy the vote and the participation of the people in relation to the religious elite including the caliph (2004: 170). Ahmad uses the Islamist perspective to argue that the Quran allows Muslims to use Shura and the opportunity of Gods vicegerency to select a Muslim ruler based on the free will of the Muslim masses (2002) pointing out the democratic aspects of the Quran when it comes to choosing a ruler. However, it seems that despite the fact that Shura is the so-called democratic compone nt of Islam, majority of the Muslim world are not democratic thus proving that it is easy to correlate the two (Shura and democracy) as similar entities in theory but in practice, it is not enough to ensure a democratic Muslim-majority state, let alone an Islamic state. As Khan puts it: a democratic theory cannot just emerge by itself from a part of a verse (2006: 158). Apart from Khans two main schools of thought, there is another perspective where in which scholars believe that Islam and democracy are intrinsically incompatible. Sivan suggests that Islam has very little to offer in the realm of politics as after Muhammads death, political history was shaped by circumstances Islamic law had little to no say on constitutional matters (Sivan in Ehteshami 2004: 96). According to Sivan, Sharia does not stand a chance of being the superior law of the land when democracy is implemented thus implying that Islamic fundamentals of politics and democracy cannot coexist without one being more superior to the other thus determining whether a state is either Islamic or democratic, they cannot be both. Furthermore, Maududis argument supports that of Sivans as he claims that an Islamic democracy would be the antithesis of secular Western democracy (Maududi in Bukay 2007). Despite the fact that numerous Muslim activists have rejected the concept of democracy as a western import designed to destroy Islam and the Sharia, there are Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike that strongly argue that there is no contradiction between Islam and democracy (Ehteshami 2004: 94). Ehteshami claims that Muslim teachings and practices of collective debate, consensus, accountability and transparency, if followed properly, will produce Muslim versions of democratic rule (2004: 94). Nevertheless, he argues that if Islam and democracy were to be seen as two different systems, one of the main differences between an Islamic state and a democracy is the sphere of sovereignty, where in a democratic society sovereignty lies with the people, and in an Islamic state it resides in God (2004: 94). Ahmad argues along the same lines as Ehteshami but uses the Islamist approach claiming that a fundamental difference between the Western and Islamist concept of democracy: the sovereignty o f the people vs. the sovereignty of God or the Shariah (2002). That being said, it is not possible to remove the sovereignty of God and the Sharia and move them to the sidelines of politics within an Islamic state with democracy at the top, because when that happens, an Islamic state is no longer an Islamic state for the reason that the core essence of it has been removed and replaced. When put in this context, it is not feasible for an Islamic state to be democratic. Bukay brings up an interesting argument in relation to the compatibility of Islam and democracy. He claims that some Western scholars maintain the Islamist argument that not only are parliamentary democracy and representative elections congruent with Sharia, but that Islam actually encourages democracy (Bukay 2007). Bukay identifies two ways in which these scholars maintain the above claims: either they twist definitions to make them fit the apparatuses of Islamic government terms such as democracy become relative or they bend the reality in Muslim countries to fit their theories (2007). He points out the phrases used by Esposito and his different co-authors such as democracy has many and varied meanings; every culture will mold an independent model of democratic government; and there can develop a religious democracy (Bukay 2007) proving his above statement true. Having exhausted all the prominent arguments in the general sphere of democracy and Muslim-majority countries, this chapter will now put these arguments into the context of Islamic states specifically. The arguments of political Islamists is one of the few realistic argument that keeps what essentially makes Islamic states Islamic as it does not disregard Sharia as unimportant or unnecessary when it comes to the governance of a Muslim country. Rather it argues the point that for democracy to work within an Islamic state, it is the responsibility of democracy to show that it encompasses Islamic ideals rather than the other way around. The liberal Muslim school of thought is also useful in finding the possibility of Islamic states being democratic as they argue from the point of view that the interpretation of the Quran is what is essential. However, no matter how evident it is in theory that there are possibilities of Islamic states becoming democratic, there is no denying that in pra ctice, not a single Islamic state exists. The non-existence of democratic Islamic states raises a number of important questions: Why are there no democratic Islamic states? Why is it possible for Indonesia and Turkey to be democratic but not Pakistan, Iran or Bahrain? Is Islam the sole, main reason why there are no democratic Islamic states? These questions will be answered in the next two chapters as the next chapter focus primarily on specific case studies of Islamic states, namely Pakistan, Iran, Yemen and Bahrain, where as the fourth chapter deals with democratic and semi-democratic Muslim-majority states, such as Indonesia, Turkey, Malaysia and Bangladesh.

Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book. Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book.

Postcolonial Novel Essay

To fully understand Chinua Achebe’s book Things Fall Apart, one must not fall for the idea that there is one main purpose for the novel. Simply stated the story is much too rich and complex for that. The themes of Okonkwo’s life, and the Ibo culture, are twofold: it is the relation of the conflict between an individual and society, and also the description of the conflict between the larger forces of cultures clashing. Support for this dual thesis is overwhelming. To begin with the text itself demands that interpretation. Things Fall Apart clearly begins with a focus directly aimed upon the main character of Okonkwo. It is going to revolve around his life. However, at the very same time, the protagonist is not mentioned even one time early on without being connected simultaneously with thoughts of both his home village and the larger culture of the Ibo people. This cannot be ignored. One could argue that rather than being a larger purpose book Things Fall Apart is just a novel of the life and growth of one man, but this is rather silly and simple. The title of the book puts one right on the path to refuting this, giving context to a larger meaning. It is clearly encouraging one to look at larger ‘things’ as opposed to a person. This is coupled with the basis for the title itself, quoted on the flyleaf: The Yeats’ poem The Second Coming: Turning and turning in a widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the center cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world. (Quoted in Things Fall Apart). Therefore given the context of a large chaotic world it would be more than naive to assume a different interpretation, that of a more concentrated work based upon an individual. To best prove the ambivalent statement of purpose about Achebe’s novel it is vital to review critical and popular commentary. This book has struck a highly resonant chord with readers in the fifty years since its first publication. It unabashedly describes an African culture in such a way that the power of the society is shown, and the power of the African individual is also demonstrated. Naturally, all minority groups and oppressed people can find inspiration within the pages. As a result, as may be expected, strong opinions have been catalogued as analysis over time. This paper reviews two such supports for each purpose stated in the thesis. The first part deals with the conflict between individuals and society. The primary source naturally is the book itself. Briefly paraphrased Okonkwo is a well known warrior. He is extremely self centered and important at the beginning of the novel. This has as its roots a severe cynicism regarding the life and experiences of his father Unoka. In a world where the society of Ibo is stronger than the individuals, this lack of respect seeps into Okonkwo’s world. The foible is too much and eventually pits him at odds with his society. Charles H. Rowell held a conversation regarding this aspect of Things Fall Apart with the author himself. What resulted was a fine understanding and awareness of this thesis through the words of Achebe. One example of his thought process and the workings of the story of Okonkwo on a personal level is this answer. â€Å"People are expecting from literature serious comment on their lives. They are not expecting frivolity† (250). Or as Rowell comments, the creation of Achebe’s stories such as Okonkwo’s are not made just to entertain. They are to connect with readers about their own experiences and then instruct them from there. Rowell’s interview shows an awareness of the importance of the social story. His questions aim to reveal this oft overlooked aspect of writings such as Things Fall Apart. It is tempting, he relates to merely dismiss (if this is even fair wording) the book as commenting only on the larger theme of Ibo society and what happens when an established social realm is invaded by foreigners. Instead he and Achebe through the discussion point to the power of a narrative surrounding the conflict that one can have on a smaller, more concentrated level: the conflict that occurs when one runs counter to their own society’s expectations. When Okonkwo becomes too heavily involved on a personal level with the sacrifice of the neighboring Mbaino culture, he runs into direct opposition to the world directly around him. That and his character traits create early conflict and show to the world a story based upon that – an important revelation to readers across the spectrum that may find themselves sometimes in this predicament. The biography of Achebe by Ezenwa-Ohaeto reveals this purpose to be true as well. And this comes from a treatment of just where Achebe was in his own personal life and the moods and hopes that he possessed while writing the book. He was working as a controller at the time in Eastern Region when he first began attempting to introduce Things Fall Apart to the publishing world. At this time, he ran into the sort of direct conflict with his own society, ironically, that he would develop in the story of Okonkwo. There was great objection to a book about Africans by Africans at the time. The 1950s were not exactly a compassionate moment for the words of Africans. Independence was on the horizon for many countries, but there was also a great deal of fear. This desire of many to not rock the boat, so to speak, put those who would speak out in a path of intersection with their own society (65). This only encouraged Achebe to produce a vision of that for his protagonist. There must be the strong character trait in one that wishes to change his social culture for the better, he reflects in his novel. The experience of Okonkwo is the experience of an individual in conflict with his society and the results that may come, unexpected or not, from that. The second section concerns itself with the conflict inherent when two cultures clash. This is the broader perspective, necessarily, compared to the experience of the individual. This also is the more basic and popular understanding of the novel. It is very easy to see all of the reasons why. Again, a look at the primary source of the novel is the starting point for any discussion. Commentary on the book will never quite serve the reader as well as the book itself. And what does it indicate? Most of the second section of the story is examining what happened to the Ibo people and their culture when the white culture insidiously worked their way into it. It broke the home culture into pieces. Things did, indeed fall apart. Consider this quote directly from the book: If we fight the stranger we shall hit our brothers and perhaps shed the book of a clansman. But we must do it. Our fathers never dreamed of such a thing, they never killed their brothers. But a white man never came to them. So we must do what our fathers would never have done. (Achebe 203). There is no better analysis of this second theme of Achebe’s work. Two cultures clash. Chaos results. And yet that is only the superficial layer of the problem, as this quote clearly shows. The problem that occurs when cultures come into contact and then conflict with each other is the assimilation effect. There will always be faction that fall prey to the invaders and their attractive ideas. Sometimes that is enough for them to forget the values of their peoples. This conflict then with their own home society can cause open resentment and actual warfare. Then the culture falls into shambles even worse as shared societal values are discarded. In the end there are not only two social cultures left: the home and the invaders. There are three: the home culture, the invaders, and the home culture that is infected by the invaders. None of them are true allies and only further conflict can be expected. Chapter three of John Ball’s book Satire and the Postcolonial Novel (79-114) examines this issue and the breakdown that results from it. He takes the even larger view that is used often as well when looking at the clashing of the Ibo with the whites that have come into their world. He reviews this setting of Things Fall Apart to be a criticism and revelation of the greater issues of colonialism in Africa (and other parts of the world, for that matter) as seen through one African author’s eyes. Rather than look too thoroughly at the early parts of the novel, he focuses rather on the part of the book in which the two cultures come into contact. This is the point of departure for this second theme. It is accurate to say that most of the pages from that spot and onward deal with this cultural clashing issue. I think, too, that it is accurate that this does work as a satire. That is to say that I fully believe that Achebe is trying to achieve this effect. Only too well did he personally understand what happens when two completely variant cultures meet. His hope and the hope of the Africans around him was that if treated peacefully, the foreign culture would come in and only benefit them, but he also saw the harsher side of the realities. This is how Things Fall Apart deals with the situation. Ball is not the only one who could see this expression in the novel and in other works by Achebe. It is a strong defense of the idea that one of the two main themes of the book is that of what happens when two cultures clash. A final proof would use is Isidore Okpewho’s commentary on Achebe in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. She sees too this problem with assimilation, cultural conflict and resultant expectations. These are all the values and stories of Things Fall Apart. Seen from the outside she has several comments and thoughts about how these topics are addressed by connecting them to the outside world at the time of the writing. She describes the authorship of this book as being a â€Å"succession of forces controlling his [Achebe’s] development as a writer† (5). This is a great assessment. It sets the stage for understanding the direction of his landmark work Things Fall Apart. It is indeed this stage that the book concerns itself with. There is a succession of forces, to use Okpewho’s words, that are acting upon the Ibo culture. These control the development of the world of that African region and create mass conflict between the two cultures. The assimilation effects, she continues, were strongest in the Ibo part of the world. This is accurately reflected, too, in the sinister ways in which the foreigners crept in with their influences. That is the warning cry of Okonkwo with the text. He sees that the policy of indirect rule is only designed to place one group of people into opposition with another group of their own people. This splinters and fragments the strength of the initial cultures. It created enemies where there weren’t any other, as reflected in the quote concerning the killing of brethren, used above. This was the white way. It is no surprise then, that this theme would find its way so strongly into Things Fall Apart. The topic is addressed as a cautionary tale. Achebe had already seen this happen in his own world. He saw the sad results. He knew how destructive the penetration of home cultures could be. All of these can be found in Part Three of the book. â€Å"It is already too late,† said Obierika sadly. â€Å"Our own men and our sons have joined the ranks of the stranger. They have joined his religion and they help to uphold his government† (176). It is the despondent tone of the theme describing the clash of cultures. All of the above commentary from several sources, combined with a close and analytical reading of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart reveals the thesis to be strongly supported. Of the novel’s purpose, two things then are true: it aim to relate an expression of conflict between an individual and society, while concurrently exploring the description of conflicts resulting from the larger forces of cultures clashing. References Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. Print. Ball, John C. Satire & the Postcolonial Novel: V. S. Naipaul, Chinua Achebe, Salman Rushdie. New York: Routledge, 2003. 79-114. Print. Ohaeto, Ezenwa. Chinua Achebe: A Biography. Oxford: James Currey, 1997. Print. Okpewho, Isidore, Ed. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. Oxford: UP, 2003. Print. Rowell, Charles H. â€Å"An Interview with Chinua Achebe. † Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: A Casebook. Ed. Isidore Okpewho. Oxford: UP, 2003. 249-272. Print. Conversations with Chinua Achebe. Ed. Bernth Lindfors. Jackson, MS: UP, 1997. Print.

Free Essays on Fatherhood

The roles of the father in these days are no different than in any age. The child should find in parents support, love, understanding, freedom to grow, develop and unfold according to an inner need and an inner guidance. . Today, however, men are beginning to take a bigger part in raising their children. This change in the role of the father may be observed in a number of ways. The most important change, however, is in the strong relationships many men now have with their children. Fathers who have spent more time with their children know them better and can help them to mature. Men are different from women: more physical, louder, and bigger. We throw our little kids into the air, play wrestling games with our sons, yell when our kid scores a run. And, as a result of the time we have spent together, we can talk with our kids, too. When a father is around more with his children, he has a chance to answer the important questions that they will often ask. The stronger relationships that result are important to all members of a family, not only to the children, but also to the wife who now has a bit more time to explore other roles in work and play. The changing roles of the father has benefited the family in many ways. Dads have discovered that they can cook, direct children in the kitchen, and even that this can be fun. We go on outings together; we have fun in the park and playground. And when there are problems, sometimes the children come to dad and talk. Twenty years ago, psychologists doubted that fathers were influential in shaping the experiences and development of their children. But that thinking has changed.... Free Essays on Fatherhood Free Essays on Fatherhood The roles of the father in these days are no different than in any age. The child should find in parents support, love, understanding, freedom to grow, develop and unfold according to an inner need and an inner guidance. . Today, however, men are beginning to take a bigger part in raising their children. This change in the role of the father may be observed in a number of ways. The most important change, however, is in the strong relationships many men now have with their children. Fathers who have spent more time with their children know them better and can help them to mature. Men are different from women: more physical, louder, and bigger. We throw our little kids into the air, play wrestling games with our sons, yell when our kid scores a run. And, as a result of the time we have spent together, we can talk with our kids, too. When a father is around more with his children, he has a chance to answer the important questions that they will often ask. The stronger relationships that result are important to all members of a family, not only to the children, but also to the wife who now has a bit more time to explore other roles in work and play. The changing roles of the father has benefited the family in many ways. Dads have discovered that they can cook, direct children in the kitchen, and even that this can be fun. We go on outings together; we have fun in the park and playground. And when there are problems, sometimes the children come to dad and talk. Twenty years ago, psychologists doubted that fathers were influential in shaping the experiences and development of their children. But that thinking has changed....

Amazing Strategies for Building Confidence in Teachers

Amazing Strategies for Building Confidence in Teachers Having confidence will only improve a teacher’s value as it naturally boosts their overall effectiveness. It is a key component of being successful. Students in particular quickly pick up on a lack of self-confidence and use that to tear a teacher down even further. Lacking self-confidence will eventually force a teacher to find another career. Confidence is something that cannot be faked, but it is something that can be built. Building confidence is another component of a principal’s duties. It can make all the difference in the world in how effective a teacher is. There is no perfect formula because every person has their own unique level of natural confidence. Some teachers do not require their confidence to be boosted at all while others require lots of extra attention in this area. A principal should develop and implement a strategic plan for building confidence in teachers.   The remainder of this article will highlight seven steps that can be included in such a plan. Each of these steps is simple and straightforward, but a principal must always be cognizant of implementing them on a regular basis. Express Gratitude Teachers often feel under appreciated, so showing them that you truly appreciate them can go a long ways in building confidence. Expressing gratitude is quick and easy. Make a habit of telling your teachers thank you, send a personal appreciation email, or give them something like a candy bar or other snack on occasion. These simple things will improve morale and confidence. Give them Leadership Opportunities Putting teachers who lack self-confidence in charge of something may sound disastrous, but when given the chance they will surprise you more times than they let you down. They shouldn’t be put in charge of large overwhelming tasks, but there are plenty of smaller type duties that anyone should be able to handle. These opportunities build confidence because it forces them to step outside their comfort zone and gives them a chance to be successful. Focus on the Strengths Every teacher has strengths, and every teacher has weaknesses. It is essential that you spend time praising their strengths. However, it is necessary to remember that strengths need honed and improved just as much as weaknesses. One way to build confidence is to allow them to share strategies that highlight their strengths with their colleagues in a faculty or team meeting. Another strategy is to allow them to mentor teachers who struggle in areas where they have strengths. Share Positive Parent/Student Feedback Principals should not be afraid to solicit student and parent feedback about a teacher. It will be beneficial regardless of the type of feedback you receive. Sharing the positive feedback with a teacher can truly be a confidence booster. Teachers who believe they are well respected by parents and students gain a lot of confidence. It naturally means a lot of those two groups to believe in a teacher’s abilities. Provide Suggestions for Improvement All teachers should be given a comprehensive Personal Development Plan that serves as a guide for improvement in areas of weaknesses. Most teachers want to be good at all facets of their job. Many of them are aware of their weaknesses but do not know how to fix them. This leads to a lack of self-confidence. An integral part of a principal’s job is to evaluate teachers. If there isn’t a growth and improvement component to your evaluation model, then it won’t be an effective evaluation system, and it certainly will not help build confidence. Provide Young Teachers a Mentor Everyone needs a mentor that they can model themselves after, seek advice or feedback from, and share best practices. This is especially true for young teachers. Veteran teachers make excellent mentors because they have been through the fire and seen it all. As a mentor, they can share both successes and failures. A mentor can build confidence through encouragement over a long period of time. The impact a mentor has on a teacher can span the length of several careers as the young teacher transitions into becoming a mentor themselves. Give Them Time Most teacher preparation programs do not prepare a teacher for life in a real classroom. This is where the lack of self-confidence often begins. Most teachers come in excited and fully confident only to realize that the real world is much tougher than the picture they had painted in their mind. This forces them to adjust on the fly, which can be overwhelming, and where confidence is often lost. Slowly over the course of time with assistance such as the suggestions above, most teachers will regain their confidence and begin to make the climb towards maximizing their overall effectiveness.